• Satrap system: The Persian Empire was divided into twenty administrative units called satrapies, each satrapy under the authority of a ruler called a satrap. Satraps had limited freedom to administer their domestic affairs, provided they paid taxes and supplied soldiers. The emperor had supreme authority over all satrapies, and he monitored them through inspectors called satraps.

• Postal System: The Persian Empire established the first postal system in history, consisting of a network of roads, stations, and messengers. The most important road was the Kings Road, which ran from Susa in Persia to Sardis in Asia Minor, 2,500 kilometers long. This road was equipped with 111 stations, each station was about 25 kilometers away from the other, which was the distance where horses and mail messengers could rest. There were messengers using these stations to exchange horses and mail, and they could transport a message from Susa to Sardis in just eight days.

• Law System: The Persian Empire was concerned with issuing and applying laws in a fair and comprehensive manner. The emperor had a major role in formulating and declaring laws, and consulted a council of advisors and judges. The people had the right to complain about any injustice or violation of their rights, and the court had to listen to the testimonies of witnesses and examine the allegations and evidence before making any decision. There were different punishments depending on the type and seriousness of the violation, such as fines, flogging, discretion, or death.

• Palaces: The Persians built huge and luxurious palaces for kings and princes, containing halls, rooms, gardens, and fountains. They used local materials such as stone, brick, and wood, and decorated the buildings with carvings, murals, and columns. The most famous is the Palace of Persepolis, the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, which includes a group of majestic buildings decorated with carvings depicting kings, gods and various peoples.

• Temples: The Persians built temples for worship and rituals, respecting the religious and philosophical principles of the Persians. They used geometric and proportional shapes to show the harmony between man, nature and God. The most famous is the Zarqan Temple, an ancient Zoroastrian temple, containing a huge brick dome, resting on eight ribs.

• Zoroastrianism: The Persians embraced a religion called Zoroastrianism, named after its founder Zoroaster, an Iranian prophet who lived in the sixth century B.C., to whom a holy book called the Avesta was revealed. This religion believes in the existence of one god called Ahura Mazda, the creator of all things, and is opposed by a demon called Angra Manyu, the source of all evil. This

• Manichaeism: It is a religion that appeared in the third century AD, at the hands of a man called Mani. This religion is considered a universal religion, combining elements of Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Buddhism. This religion believes that there is a good God who is the Enlightener, and an evil God who is the Dark One. This religion emphasizes the importance of purification, fasting and prayer in human life.

• Mazdakism: It is a religion that appeared in the fifth century AD, at the hands of a man called Mazdak. This religion is considered a social religion, demanding the abolition of property, classes, and marriage. This religion believes in the existence of a good god, Abu Zurfan, and an evil god, Ahriman. This religion emphasizes the importance of equality, justice and love in human life.

• Rock inscriptions: They are ancient art forms that display images and texts on rocks. They were engraved to commemorate kings, heroes, and historical events, or to show their strength and courage. The most famous Persian rock inscriptions are: Naqsh-e Rostam, a rock monument engraved with images of wars and blessings that includes the tombs of the Achaemenid kings.

• Murals: are artistic forms consisting of drawings on walls. To decorate buildings and palaces, or to show scenes from life and nature. The most famous of these murals is the Sultan Mahmud Ghaznawi mural, which depicts a battle between the Ghaznavid king and the Indians.

• Metalwork: These are art forms that consist of making pieces of metal such as gold, silver, and bronze. It is used to make jewelry, weapons, dishes and antiques. The most famous is a small golden chariot, discovered among the ruins near the Oxus River in Tajikistan.

• Ceramics: It is an art form that consists of making pieces of fired clay. It is used to make pots, flowers and statues. The most famous is Sassanid ceramics, which are characterized by bright colors and floral and animal decorations.

• Poetry: Persian poetry is considered one of the most important aspects of the popular heritage in Persia, as it carries within it the values, feelings and ideas of Persians throughout time. Persian poetry is distinguished by its beauty, spirituality, and creativity, and is used on various occasions and events by the famous Persian poets, namely: Ferdowsi, Hafez, Rumi, Saadi, and Khayyam.

• Music: Music plays an important role in the folklore of Persia, as it is used to express feelings, feelings, and psychological states. Persian music is influenced by religious, regional, and ethnic traditions, and uses a range of musical instruments such as the flute, tar, violin, satar, and tanbur.

• Plastic Arts: The plastic arts in Persia have witnessed great development over the centuries, drawing inspiration from religious, literary, and natural sources. The plastic arts in Persia include various fields such as: calligraphy, decoration, painting, sculpture, ceramics, and weaving. Some of the most famous works of visual art in Persia are: the Book of Shahnameh, the paintings of Rostam, and the Jam of Khorasan.

• In the field of science: Islamic civilization benefited from Persian knowledge in areas such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Some Persian scholars such as Khwarazmi, Biruni, and Ibn Sina also contributed to the development of these fields.

• In the field of religion: Zoroastrianism, which is an ancient religion of the Persians, spread in some regions such as Iran, India, and Central Asia. Some religious sects, such as Manichaeism and Baha'i faith, were also influenced by Zoroastrianism.

• In the field of art: The Persian civilization created various art forms such as sculptures, murals, metalwork, ceramics, and weaving. Some civilizations, such as the Islamic civilization and the Turkish civilization, were also influenced by the plastic arts of the Persians.

• In the field of architecture: The Persian civilization built huge palaces, temples, and monuments of stone, brick, and wood. Columns, domes and colorful decorations were used to show its

• External Invasions: The Persian Empire was attacked by external forces such as Alexander the Great, Romans, Arabs, Mongols, Turks, and the British. These invasions led to the destruction of cities, temples, and wealth, the killing or capture of kings and leaders, the loss of lands and sovereignty, and the spread of foreign cultures and religions.

• Internal rebellions: The Persian Empire witnessed uprisings and revolutions by some of its provinces or kingdoms, which were demanding independence or change. These rebellions affected the stability and unity of the empire, and weakened the king's central authority.

• Administrative corruption: The situation of the Persian Empire deteriorated due to the spread of corruption, injustice, and greed among some officials and tax collectors, who exploited their power to seize the money and rights of the people. Disagreements and conflicts also arose between some members of the royal family or between some generals or governors, which led to the division or dispersion of the empire.

• Cultural and Religious Changes: Persian civilization was influenced by the cultures and religions that came with invaders, merchants, or immigrants from different regions. These influences led to a change in the beliefs, customs and values of some segments of the people, which may lead to the loss of identity or the dissolution of the bond of some of them.